It is literally all about living for today. By understanding that nature favours survival today over tomorrow, a theory that vitamin inadequacy is behind the rise in chronic diseases “makes sense… and it is almost certainly going to be right,” says world-renowned scientist Bruce Ames. Professor Bruce Ames from the University of California, Berkeley explains why his “triage theory” could have enormous implications for human health.
Professor Ames needs no introduction. In the 1970s, he invented the Ames Test, a simple and inexpensive assay to check the mutagenicity of compounds. Since then he has dedicated his research to understanding the biochemistry of ageing, with a focus on mitochondria, the power plants of our cells, as well as how micronutrients may prevent disease, malnutrition, and obesity.
He believes his triage theory is “the most important thing I have ever worked on”.
Evolutionary mechanisms
Triage – trier means to sort, separate, or select – works on the battlefield by military doctors prioritising treatments depending on the probable survival of the wounded.
As per Prof Ames’ theory the natural selection favours short-term survival over the long-term. Prof Ames’ hypothesised that our short-term survival is achieved by prioritising the allocation of scarce micronutrients. In other words, to stop us falling over from a lack of iron in the heart, for example, iron is pulled from non-essential sources. Its a way of “measuring the insidious damage going on over time”.
The theory was first proposed in 2006 (PNAS, Vol. 103, Pages 17589-94) to explain why age-related diseases like heart disease, cancer, and dementia may be unintended consequences of mechanisms developed during evolution to protect against episodic vitamin/mineral shortages.
“If this hypothesis is correct, micronutrient deficiencies that trigger the triage response would accelerate cancer, aging, and neural decay but would leave critical metabolic functions, such as ATP production, intact,” explained Prof Ames in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
However, since it was first published Prof Ames concedes that the wider nutrition community has not embraced the theory. “A new idea is always hard to get through,” he said. The resistance has come from some of the “old timers”, said the octogenarian scientist, who think that such a theory would “encourage people to take more vitamins”.
Despite claims that the theory may have important implications for determining the optimum intake of all vitamins and minerals, as well as major implications for preventive medicine, financial funding for triage research has been difficult to obtain, said Prof Ames.
Scientific support
While the finances may be the lacking, scientific support is not. Working with the “very good” Joyce McCann, PhD, Prof Ames recently applied his theory to vitamin K. Writing in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Vol. 90, pp. 889-907), they reported that five of the 16 known vitamin K-dependent proteins are required for coagulation had critical functions, meaning that animals genetically manipulated to have inactive forms did not survive.
On the other hand, another five proteins were found to be less critical, and the animals survived through weaning. However, a lack of these less critical vitamin K-dependent proteins, inadequate intakes of vitamin K1 from the diet, or vitamin K deficiency were all associated with age-related conditions, including weaker bones and hardening of the arteries, which increased the risk of cardiovascular disease. An increase in the incidence of spontaneous cancer was also observed.
“The triage theory supplies a unifying framework explaining why a crop of diseases associated with aging is emerging for so many micronutrients,” wrote McCann and Ames in the AJCN. “It is our hope that this analysis will stimulate further efforts to redefine micronutrient adequacy on the basis of long-term effects,” they added.
Triage theory has cleared every hurdle it has come up against, but that doesn’t surprise Prof Ames.
“My triage theory makes sense,” he said. “And it is almost certainly going to be right.”
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Ever wondered why the farmers are always giving mineral supplements to their livestock.
For whatever reason Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Calcium, Magnesium, Selenium, Chromium, Copper, Phosphorous, Iron, Zinc, Bromine, Fluorine, and Boron
Na, K and Mg are important for our heart. Some intake of salt daily is important as the Chlorine (Cl) that we get from salt is necessary for making HCl that breaks down our hardest foods in our stomach. One has to wonder if the intensive salt reduction campaigns are actually that good of an idea. Iron (Fe) is crucial to transportation of oxygen into our body and to removing CO2 from our blood stream through the lungs.
We also know that our nerves send electric impulses to impact our muscles and that means that we generate some old fashion electricity in our bodies. We maintain an electric charge in our body that can be detected. How do we do that is not clear as we have a multitude of ways available and perhaps different organs make it even different ways. Our options range from simple alkaline / acid cell batteries to direct fuel cell processes as hinted by many of the elements shown in the above table of main elements.
Our body has a great variety of tools available to keep the pH of our blood at a constant 7.2 (a measure of alkalinity/acidity 0 - 14, pH = Potential Hydrogen). This is a serious issue and for this our body has plenty of spare buffering capacity in form of various inorganic bicarbonates (Na,Ca,Mg,K) and even a myriad of digestive entsymes at it's disposal. And if this buffering capacity gets consumed then the body starts cannibalizing itself to maintain the blood pH above 7. If the pH in our blood would becomes acidic that would mean a quick death as the chemically bound COO- would auto convert to CO2 gas inside our veins plugging likely most of the capillary arteries.
To remain healthy we need to have the pH around 7 also in our main body. Our normal diet contains all kind of drinks and food items that varying from highly acidic to alkaline and here we can make real change at will. We are the only ones that can be blamed from whatever goes into our body through the mouth. Whatever that is will in time have an enormous impact to our mental and physical health and life expectancy.
Our body outside the blood circulation can take enormous punishment in pH when measured from the morning urine samples. The variation can be anywhere from 4 something all the way over 8. This variation is huge when evaluated through the eyes of a chemist. The difference hydrogen reaction potential is a whopping ratio of 10,000 to 1.
Oxygen is an interesting life sustaining element in our body and we get a constant supply of it by breathing. Normal people can not hold their breath beyond a minute or two. If the brain itself does not get oxygen we lose our consciousness in about 6 seconds. This is actually an automatic safety mechanism in our body. If oxygen does not reach our brain it relaxes instantly all muscles in our body and it fall down on the spot. This is enough to return the blood circulation to the brain and with that the body functions will return. Our blood circulation contains oxygen for several minutes of excessive muscle activity before we must take a rest and recover the forming oxygen deficiency. If our brain does not get enough oxygen the first brain cells start dying after five to six minutes though sometimes some drowned people can be brought back to normal life even after much longer time periods.
In most cases, optimal levels of Minerals exist and the essential Minerals must be present in the body in their correct balance. Excessive consumption or accumulation of Minerals is generally as undesirable (i.e. toxic) as a deficiency.
Macrominerals (Essentials) |
| |
% |
Average Human Body
Content (70 kg person) |
Essentiality |
| Oxygen |
65.4 |
43 kg |
|
| Carbon |
18.2 |
12 kg |
|
| Hydrogen |
9.5 |
6.3 kg |
|
| Nitrogen |
3 |
2 kg |
|
| Calcium |
1.67 |
1.1 kg |
|
| Phosphorus |
1.14 |
750 grams |
|
| Potassium |
0.342 |
225 grams |
|
| Sulfur |
0.228 |
150 grams |
|
| Chloride |
0.152 |
100 grams |
|
| Sodium |
0.137 |
90 grams |
|
| Magnesium |
0.053 |
35 grams |
|
| Silicon |
0.046 |
30 grams |
|
Microminerals |
| |
% |
Average Human Body
Content (70 kg person) |
Essentiality |
| Iron |
0.00638 |
4,200 mg |
Essentiality |
| Fluoride |
0.00395 |
2,600 mg |
Essential |
| Zinc |
0.00365 |
2,400 mg |
Possibly Essential |
| Rubidium |
0.000532 |
350 mg |
Essential |
| Strontium |
0.000486 |
320 mg |
Probably Essential |
| Lead |
0.000243 |
160 mg |
Possibly Essential |
| Copper |
0.000137 |
90 mg |
Essential |
| Aluminium |
0.0000988 |
65 mg |
Toxic |
| Cadmium |
0.0000608 |
40 mg |
Toxic |
| Barium |
0.0000344 |
22 mg |
Possibly Essential |
| Cobalt |
0.0000304 |
20 mg |
Essential |
| Vanadium |
0.0000304 |
20 mg |
Probably Essential |
| Iodine |
0.0000228 |
15 mg |
Essential |
| Tin |
0.0000228 |
15 mg |
Possibly Essential |
| Selenium |
0.0000228 |
15 mg |
Essential |
| Arsenic |
0.0000228 |
15 mg |
Possibly Essential |
| Manganese |
0.0000198 |
13 mg |
Essential |
| Mercury |
0.0000190 |
12.5 mg |
Toxic |
| Nickel |
0.0000167 |
11 mg |
Possibly Essential |
| Molybdenum |
0.0000122 |
8 mg |
Essential |
| Chromium |
0.0000091 |
6 mg |
Essential |
| Bismuth |
0.0000045 |
3 mg |
Probably Toxic |
| Lithium |
0.0000038 |
2.5 mg |
Probably Essential |
| Uranium |
|
90 mcg |
Toxic |
| Boron |
|
|
Probably Essential |
| Germanium |
|
|
Probably Essential |
| Bromine |
|
|
Possibly Essential |
| Gold |
|
|
Probably Non Essential |
| Silver |
|
|
Probably Non Essential |
| Beryllium |
|
|
Probably Toxic |
| Antimony |
|
|
Slightly Toxic |
| Thallium |
|
|
Toxic |
Sodium
Sodium is a
Chlorine
Chlorine is a
Potassium
Potassium is a
Calcium
Calcium is a
Magnesium
Magnesium Magnesium is essential for hundreds of biochemical reactions in the body. It helps maintain normal muscle and nerve function, keeps heart rhythm steady, and keeps bones strong.
Selenium
Selenium is an essential trace mineral in the human body. This nutrient is an important part of antioxidant enzymes that protect cells against the effects of free radicals that are produced during normal oxygen metabolism. The body has developed defenses such as antioxidants to control levels of free radicals because they can damage cells and contribute to the development of some chronic diseases. Selenium is also essential for normal functioning of the immune system and thyroid gland.
Some studies indicate that mortality (death) from cancer, including lung, colorectal, and prostate cancers, is lower among people with higher selenium blood levels or intake. Also, the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer is significantly higher in areas of the United States with low soil selenium levels.
The effect of selenium supplementation on the recurrence of these types of skin cancers was studied in seven dermatology clinics in the US from 1983 through the early 1990s. Supplementation with 200 mcg selenium daily did not affect recurrence of skin cancer, but significantly reduced total mortality and mortality from cancers. In addition, incidence of prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, and lung cancer was lower in the group given selenium supplements.
However, not all studies have shown a relationship between selenium status and cancer. In 1982, over 60,000 participants of the Nurses Health Study with no history of cancer submitted toenail clippings for selenium analysis. Toenail analysis is thought to reflect selenium status over the previous year. After three and one-half years, researchers compared the toenail selenium levels of nurses with and without cancer. They did not find any apparent benefit of higher selenium levels .
Selenium and heart disease
Some population surveys have indicated an association between a lower antioxidant intake with a greater incidence of heart disease. Additional lines of evidence suggest that oxidative stress from free radicals may promote heart disease. For example, it is the oxidized form of low-density lipoproteins (LDL, often called "bad" cholesterol) that promotes plaque build-up in coronary arteries. Selenium is one of a group of antioxidants that may help limit the oxidation of LDL cholesterol and thereby help to prevent coronary artery disease. Currently there is insufficient evidence available to recommend selenium supplements for the prevention of coronary heart disease.
Selenium and arthritis
Surveys of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, a chronic disease that causes pain, stiffness, swelling, and loss of function in joints, have indicated that they have reduced selenium levels in their blood. In addition, some individuals with arthritis have a low selenium intake.
The body's immune system naturally makes free radicals that can help destroy invading organisms and damaged tissue, but that can also harm healthy tissue. Selenium, as an antioxidant, may help control levels of free radicals and help to relieve symptoms of arthritis. Current findings are considered preliminary, and further research is needed before selenium supplements can be recommended for individuals with arthritis.
Selenium and HIV
HIV / AIDS related malabsorption can deplete levels of many nutrients. Selenium deficiency is commonly associated with HIV / AIDS, and has been associated with a high risk of death from this disease. Of 24 children with HIV who were observed for five years, those with low selenium levels died at a younger age, which may indicate faster disease progression. An examination of 125 HIV positive men and women also associated selenium deficiency with mortality. Researchers believe that selenium may be important in HIV disease because of its role in the immune system and as an antioxidant. Selenium also may be needed for the replication of the HIV virus, which could deplete host levels of selenium. Researchers are actively investigating the role of selenium in HIV / AIDS, and see a need for clinical trials that evaluate the effect of selenium supplementation on HIV disease progression.
Chromium
Chromium is a mineral that humans require in trace amounts, although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well known. It is found primarily in two forms: 1) trivalent (chromium 3+), which is biologically active and found in food, and 2) hexavalent (chromium 6+), a toxic form that results from industrial pollution. The next focuses exclusively on trivalent (3+) chromium.
Chromium is known to enhance the action of insulin, a hormone critical to the metabolism and storage of carbohydrate, fat, and protein in the body. In 1957, a compound in brewers' yeast was found to prevent an age-related decline in the ability of rats to maintain normal levels of sugar (glucose) in their blood. Chromium was identified as the active ingredient in this so-called "glucose tolerance factor" in 1959.
Chromium also appears to be directly involved in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, but more research is needed to determine the full range of its roles in the body. The challenges to meeting this goal include:
-
Defining the types of individuals who respond to chromium supplementation;
-
Evaluating the chromium content of foods and its bioavailability;
-
Determining if a clinically relevant chromium-deficiency state exists in humans due to inadequate dietary intakes; and
-
Developing valid and reliable measures of chromium status.
What are some current issues and controversies about chromium?
Chromium has long been of interest for its possible connection to various health conditions. Among the most active areas of chromium research are its use in supplement form to treat diabetes, lower blood lipid levels, promote weight loss, and improve body composition.
Type 2 diabetes and glucose intolerance
In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas is usually producing enough insulin but, for unknown reasons, the body cannot use the insulin effectively. The disease typically occurs, in part, because the cells comprising muscle and other tissues become resistant to insulin's action, especially among the obese. Insulin permits the entry of glucose into most cells, where this sugar is used for energy, stored in the liver and muscles (as glycogen), and converted to fat when present in excess. Insulin resistance leads to higher than normal levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia).
Chromium deficiency impairs the body's ability to use glucose to meet its energy needs and raises insulin requirements. It has therefore been suggested that chromium supplements might help to control type 2 diabetes or the glucose and insulin responses in persons at high risk of developing the disease. A review of randomized controlled clinical trials evaluated this hypothesis. This meta-analysis assessed the effects of chromium supplements on three markers of diabetes in the blood: glucose, insulin, and glycated hemoglobin (which provides a measure of long-term glucose levels; also known as hemoglobin A1C). It summarized data from 15 trials on 618 participants, of which 425 were in good health or had impaired glucose tolerance and 193 had type 2 diabetes. Chromium supplementation had no effect on glucose or insulin concentrations in the non-diabetic subjects nor did it reduce these levels in subjects with diabetes, except in one study. However, that study, conducted in China (in which 155 diabetics were given either 200 or 1,000 mcg/day of chromium or a placebo) might simply show the benefits of supplementation in a chromium-deficient population.
Overall, the value of chromium supplements for diabetics is inconclusive and controversial. Randomized controlled clinical trials in well-defined, at-risk populations where dietary intakes are known are necessary to determine the effects of chromium on markers of diabetes.
Lipid metabolism
The effects of chromium supplementation on blood lipid levels in humans are also inconclusive. In some studies, 150 to 1,000 mcg/day has decreased total and low-density-lipoprotein (LDL or "bad") cholesterol and triglyceride levels and increased concentrations of apolipoprotein A (a component of high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol known as HDL or "good" cholesterol) in subjects with atherosclerosis or elevated cholesterol or among those taking a beta-blocker drug. These findings are consistent with the results of earlier studies.
However, chromium supplements have shown no favorable effects on blood lipids in other studies. The mixed research findings may be due to difficulties in determining the chromium status of subjects at the start of the trials and the researchers' failure to control for dietary factors that influence blood lipid levels.
Body weight and composition
Chromium supplements are sometimes claimed to reduce body fat and increase lean (muscle) mass. Yet a recent review of 24 studies that examined the effects of 200 to 1,000 mcg/day of chromium (in the form of chromium picolinate) on body mass or composition found no significant benefits. Another recent review of randomized, controlled clinical trials did find supplements of chromium picolinate to help with weight loss when compared to placebos, but the differences were small and of debatable clinical relevance. In several studies, chromium's effects on body weight and composition may be called into question because the researchers failed to adequately control for the participants' food intakes. Furthermore, most studies included only a small number of subjects and were of short duration.
Copper
The amount of copper found in the human body (50 to 120 milligrams) would probably fit on the head of a pin, but such a tiny quantity doesn’t prevent this mighty mineral from performing impressive feats to promote optimal health. Among copper’s many duties are fueling energy production; preventing anemia and bone disease; fending off cell damage; and promoting proper fetal development. While copper is found in the far reaches of the body, it’s concentrated in organs with high metabolic activity, including the liver, brain, kidneys, and heart. Copper now has an official Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) in the United States, underscoring its importance as part of a balanced diet. In January 2001, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences issued the first RDA for copper as a benchmark for ensuring adequate intake. Here’s why:
Healthy Babies: Copper’s Role Developing babies depend on copper during pregnancy and beyond. Their bodies stock up on the mineral during the final trimester of pregnancy to ensure that copper is available after birth to carry out dozens of metabolic functions. Copper is crucial for the optimal formation of a child’s brain and nervous system. The mineral is responsible for production and maintenance of myelin, the material that surrounds and protects nerve and brain cells. Copper also plays a role in making neurotransmitters, chemical messengers that foster communication between nerve cells.
Copper Defends Cells Against Harmful Oxidation Free radicals roam your body looking to make trouble by oxidizing healthy cells. Scientists say oxidized cells increase your risk of cancer and heart disease. Fortunately, copper plays a role in the body’s elaborate defense against oxidation. As part of enzymes found in and around cells, copper helps the body neutralize free radicals to prevent cell destruction.
Copper Helps Maintain Bone Health & Skin Copper is required to make connective tissue, which binds one part of the body to another; holds organs in place; shores up heart and blood vessels; gives skin its firmness, and bolsters bone strength. Copper’s important role in collagen formation, a connective tissue in bones and skin, underscores that calcium and copper are vital to build and maintain strong bones. In fact, animal studies show that bone fractures, skeletal abnormalities, and osteoporosis are prevalent with copper deficiency.
Copper and Iron: It’s a Match Copper and iron work together for optimal well-being. How? Copper helps to convert iron to the ferric form, the most useful type, and also helps transport iron to, and from, tissues. A copper deficiency can result in anemia and tissue iron overload.
How Does the Body Get Copper? The body cannot make copper, so one must get it from food or dietary supplements. Copper is available in a wide array of fresh and light-processed foods. People should rely on copper-rich foods as part of balanced diet to get the copper they need. They can take supplements as a safety net or when prescribed by a doctor. Foods containing the highest copper concentrations include grains, such as whole grain cereal and whole wheat bread; legumes, particularly navy beans, black-eyed peas, and peanuts; tree nuts and seeds, such as almonds and sunflower seeds; oysters; liver and kidney; and chocolate. Typically, multivitamin/multi-mineral supplements supply copper, too. People who rely on dietary supplements should take pills that contain no more than 100% of the recommended daily intake for copper and other vitamins and minerals.
The Mineral Balancing Act Nutrients work as a team, which is why too much of a good thing can actually be bad. Take the case of zinc and copper. High levels of zinc, typically from dietary supplements, block the absorption of copper by the body, boosting the chance of copper deficiency. Likewise, large doses of supplemental iron wreak havoc on the body’s balance, too. Physicians may prescribe iron to correct a deficiency, but you need copper and zinc for good measure. According to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, doctors who order 30 mg of iron or more every day should also suggest taking 15 mg of zinc and 2 mg of copper along with the iron.
Copper: Not Enough? Too Much? Copper deficiency with severe symptoms is rare, but research shows not all people achieve the recommended daily copper goals, which are designed for optimal health. Premature infants and certain children are particularly prone to copper deficiency. Developing babies bank copper during the final trimester of pregnancy, which is why premature infants risk a copper shortfall at birth. Feeding premature infants milk formulas, which may be low in available copper, exacerbates the problem. Infants who are recovering from malnutrition associated with chronic diarrhea should also avoid a diet primarily of cow’s milk because of its very low copper levels. While extremely rare, some people can be genetically predisposed to a copper-related disorder. Menkes disease is an inherited disorder of copper metabolism that causes copper deficiency and, ultimately, irreversible damage. By contrast, Wilson’s disease is marked by impaired excretion of copper. As a result, copper accumulates in tissues including the liver, brain, and cornea.
What’s New On the Copper Research Front Leading scientists from around the world are taking a closer look at the health benefits of copper. Studies are currently being conducted by health authorities and universities such as the U.S. National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Human Nutrition Research Center, University of California at Davis, University of Michigan, Peking University in Beijing, Deakin University in Australia, and The Rowett Research Institute in Scotland. Researchers are studying a wide range of potential health benefits, including copper’s effect on fetal development, osteoporosis and bone repair, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disease.
Phosphorous
Phosphorus, also known as phosphate, is an essential mineral in human nutrition and plays an important role in the structure and function of the human body. Phosphorus is essential for the process of bone mineralization and is what creates and maintains bone structure. Almost 90% of phosphorus in the human body is found in bone. Phosphorus also makes up the structure of cellular membranes, nucleic acids and nucleotides, including adenosine triphosphate. It has been said that life is built around phosphorus.
Phosphorus deficiency is uncommon because dietary intake is usually adequate. However, chronic alcoholics and people taking large amounts of aluminum-containing antacids may become deficient of phosphorus. In addition, those with malabsorption syndromes and those with diseases causing renal tubular losses of phosphorus can become phosphorus depleted. Phosphorus deficiency can result in anorexia, impaired growth, osteomalacia, skeletal demineralization, proximal muscle atrophy and weakness, cardiac arrhythmias, respiratory insufficiency, increased erythrocyte and lymphocyte dysfunction, susceptibility to infectious rickets, nervous system disorders, and even death.
Phosphorus is second only to calcium as a mineral in the body. Phosphorus is present in bones and teeth and combines with calcium to form calcium phosphate which is the substance which gives the skeleton rigidity. It is also present in every cell in the human body and in the body fluids as well.
Phosphorus can be found in the environment most commonly as phosphates. Phosphates are important substances in the human body, because they are a part of DNA materials and they take part in energy distribution. Phosphates can also be found commonly in plants.
Phosphate is a dietary requirement, the recommended intake is 800 mg/day, a normal diet provides between 1000 and 2000 mg/day, depending on the extent to which phosphate rich foods are consumed.
Humans have changed the natural phosphate supply radically by addition of phosphate-rich manures to the soil and by the use of phosphate-containing detergents. Phosphates were also added to a number of foodstuffs, such as cheese, sausages and hams.
Too much phosphate can cause health problems, such as kidney damage and osteoporosis. Phosphate shortages can also occur. These are caused by extensive use of medicine. Too little phosphate can cause health problems.
Phosphorus in its pure form has a white color. White phosphorus is the most dangerous form of phosphorus that is known to us. When white phosphorus occurs in nature this can be a serious danger to our health. White phosphorus is extremely poisonous and in many cases exposure to it will be fatal. In most cases people that died of white phosphorus exposure had been accidentally swallowing rat poison. Before people die from white phosphorus exposure they often experience nausea, stomach cramps and drowsiness. White phosphorus can cause skin burns. While burning, white phosphorus may cause damage to the liver, the heart or the kidneys.
Iron
Iron is a trace element which is needed by the body for the formation of blood. The human body normally contains 3-4g of iron, more than half of which is in the form of hemoglobin, the red pigment in blood. Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Iron is a constituent of a number of enzymes. The muscle protein myoglobin contains iron, as does the liver - an important source during the first six months of life. The body's iron balance varies mainly according to dietary intake, as losses from the body are generally small - although women lose iron during menstruation.
Iron is an absolute requirement for most forms of life, including humans and most bacterial species. And because plants and animals all use iron, iron can be found in a wide variety of food sources.
Iron is essential to life, because of its unique ability to serve as both an electron donor and acceptor.
But iron can also be potentially toxic. Iron's ability to donate and accept electrons means that if iron is free within the cell, it can catalyze the conversion of hydrogen peroxide into free radicals. And free radicals can cause damage to a wide variety of cellular structures, and ultimately kill the cell. To prevent that kind of damage, all life forms that use iron bind the iron atoms to proteins. That allows the cells to use the benefits of iron, but also limit its ability to do harm.
The most important group of iron-binding proteins are the hemi molecules, all of which contain iron at their centers. Humans and most bacteria use variants of hemi to carry out redox reactions and electron transport processes. These reactions and processes are required for oxidative phosphorylation. That process is the principal source of energy for human cells; without it, our cells would die.
Humans also use iron in the hemoglobin of red blood cells, in order to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and to export carbon dioxide back to the lungs. And iron is an essential component of myoglobin to store oxygen in muscle cells.
The human body needs iron for oxygen transport. That oxygen is required for the production and survival of all cells in our bodies. So human bodies tightly regulate iron absorption and recycling. Iron is such an essential element of human life, in fact, that humans have no physiologic regulatory mechanism for excreting iron. Most humans prevent iron overload solely by regulating iron absorption. Those who can't regulate absorption well enough get disorders of iron overload. In these diseases, the toxicity of iron starts overwhelming the body's ability to bind and store it.
Zinc
Zinc is an essential element, necessary for sustaining all life. It is estimated that 3000 of the hundreds of thousands of proteins in the human body contain zincprosthetic groups, one type of which is the so-called zinc finger. In addition, there are over a dozen types of cells in the human body that secrete zinc ions, and the roles of these secreted zinc signals in medicine and health are now being actively studied. Intriguingly, brain cells in the mammalian forebrain are one type of cell that secretes zinc, along with its other neuronal messenger substances. Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine are other types that secrete zinc.
Zinc is an activator of certain enzymes, such as carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is important in the transport of carbon dioxide in vertebrate blood. It is also required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and anaerobic respiration (alcoholic fermentation)
Food sources
Zinc is found in oysters, and to a far lesser degree in most animal proteins, beans, nuts, almonds, whole grains, pumpkin seeds and sunflower seeds. Phytates, which are found in whole grain breads, cereals, legumes and other products, have been known to decrease zinc absorption. Clinical studies have found that zinc, combined with antioxidants, may delay progression of age-related macular degeneration, but the effect is extremely small and not likely to be clinically important. Significant dietary intake of zinc has also recently been shown to impede the onset of flu. Soil conservation analyzes the vegetative uptake of naturally occurring zinc in many soil types.
The (US) recommended dietary allowance of zinc from puberty on is 11mg for males and 8mg for females, with higher amounts recommended during pregnancy and lactation.
Fluoride - According to BBC News:
“The fluoride in the ash creates acid in the animals' stomachs, corroding the intestines and causing hemorrhages. It also binds with calcium in the bloodstream and after heavy exposure over a period of days makes bones frail, even causing teeth to crumble.”
When we know this why are we using Fluoride in our drinking water?
Fluid Systems of the Body
There are two main fluid systems in the body: blood and lymph. The blood and lymph systems are intertwined throughout the body and they are responsible for transporting the agents of the immune system.
The Blood System
The 5 liters of blood of a 70 kg (154 lb) person constitute about 7% of the body's total weight. The blood flows from the heart into arteries, then to capillaries, and returns to the heart through veins.
Blood is composed of 52-62% liquid plasma and 38-48% cells. The plasma is mostly water (91.5%) and acts as a solvent for transporting other materials (7% protein [consisting of albumins (54%), globulins (38%), fibrinogen (7%), and assorted other stuff (1%)] and 1.5% other stuff). Blood is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.40 ± .05) and a tad heavier than water (density = 1.057 ± .009).
All blood cells are manufactured by stem cells, which live mainly in the bone marrow, via a process called hematopoiesis. The stem cells produce hemocytoblasts that differentiate into the precursors for all the different types of blood cells. Hemocytoblasts mature into three types of blood cells: erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs),
leukocytes (white blood cells or WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets).
The leukocytes are further subdivided into granulocytes (containing large granules in the cytoplasm) and agranulocytes (without granules). The granulocytes consist of neutrophils (55-70%), eosinophils (1-3%), and basophils (0.5-1.0%). The agranulocytes are lymphocytes (consisting of B cells and T cells) and monocytes. Lymphocytes circulate in the blood and lymph systems, and make their home in the lymphoid organs.
All of the major cells in the blood system are illustrated below.
|
There are 5000-10,000 WBCs per mm3 and they live 5-9 days. About 2,400,000 RBCs are produced each second and each lives for about 120 days (They migrate to the spleen to die. Once there, that organ scavenges usable proteins from their carcasses). A healthy male has about 5 million RBCs per mm3, whereas females have a bit fewer than 5 million.
The goo on RBCs is responsible for the usual ABO blood grouping, among other things. The grouping is characterized by the presence or absence of A and/or B antigens on the surface of the RBCs. Blood type AB means both antigens are present and type O means both antigens are absent. Type A blood has A antigens and type B blood has B antigens.
Some of the blood, but not red blood cells (RBCs), is pushed through the capillaries into the interstitial fluid.
The Lymph System
Lymph is an alkaline (pH > 7.0) fluid that is usually clear, transparent, and colorless. It flows in the lymphatic vessels and bathes tissues and organs in its protective covering. There are no RBCs in lymph and it has a lower protein content than blood. Like blood, it is slightly heavier than water (density = 1.019 ± .003).
The lymph flows from the interstitial fluid through lymphatic vessels up to either the thoracic duct or right lymph duct, which terminate in the subclavian veins, where lymph is mixed into the blood. (The right lymph duct drains the right sides of the thorax, neck, and head, whereas the thoracic duct drains the rest of the body.) Lymph carries lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins absorbed from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Since there is no active pump in the lymph system, there is no back-pressure produced. The lymphatic vessels, like veins, have one-way valves that prevent backflow. Additionally, along these vessels there are small bean-shaped lymph nodes that serve as filters of the lymphatic fluid. It is in the lymph nodes where antigen is usually presented to the immune system.
The human lymphoid system has the following:
- primary organs: bone marrow (in the hollow center of bones) and the thymus gland (located behind the breastbone above the heart), and
- secondary organs at or near possible portals of entry for pathogens: adenoids, tonsils, spleen (located at the upper left of the abdomen), lymph nodes (along the lymphatic vessels with concentrations in the neck, armpits, abdomen, and groin), Peyer's patches (within the intestines), and the appendix.
Discovery of "Arsenic-bug" Expands Definition of Life
Dec. 2, 2010: NASA-supported researchers have discovered the first known microorganism on Earth able to thrive and reproduce using the toxic chemical arsenic. The microorganism, which lives in Clifornia's Mono Lake, substitutes arsenic for phosphorus in the backbone of its DNA and other cellular components.
A microscopic image of GFAJ-1 grown on arsenic
"The definition of life has just expanded," said Ed Weiler, NASA's associate administrator for the Science Mission Directorate at the agency's Headquarters in Washington. "As we pursue our efforts to seek signs of life in the solar system, we have to think more broadly, more diversely and consider life as we do not know it."
This finding of an alternative biochemistry makeup will alter biology textbooks and expand the scope of the search for life beyond Earth. The research is published in this week's edition of Science Express.
Life in presence of water, minerals and heat is unavoidable...
The life at the beginning was simple first one cell plants and organisms. Soon enough they grew to contain more and more cells. The division between them was simple. One set relied on heat and light they got from the sun and the other set in turn extracted their life energy from those who depended on the heat and light. This is the division between the plant and animal kingdoms.
Soon enough everything grew more complex on both sides as all of them preferred some specific aspects in their environment and diet: different mineral contents, different light and heat contents or whatever it happened to be.
Soon the oceans started getting "crowded" and more dangerous for the weakest and they had to become smarter, more agile or develop an ability to defend themselves and use a more variety as their energy source to survive. Those who could adopt and escape started again new trends in development.
Then some in the plant kingdom started anchoring themselves to one spot with a root system. Even in the oceans this gave a huge benefit as the water around is in a constant move back and forth with waves and tides. They were suddenly in a much richer nutritional environment as the water around them was changing continuously compared their previous life form where they were just going with the flow.
When anchored down they of course could no more escape and often this was almost fatal. They developed means to grow back and also to multiply in large numbers and a way to shed off their offspring just to float away to try their luck elsewhere.
Those plants who had moved closer and closer towards the shorelines realized soon that this anchor brought also a huge success as they could now survive further and further away from the permanent water away from the predators all the way to almost dry land as long as their roots just reached the water table. The fresh water and the increasing amount of oxygen in the air gave another huge benefit as they could grow stronger and higher as there was soon a huge competition here too.
The predator class, the animal kingdom, was not helpless either as they recognized for sure the tasty looking plants on shoreline and beyond. To get them they tried first the tide pools and floods but that was not enough for them. The graving of these land living plants was to good for some and they started coming deeper and deeper into shallower tide pools and flood planes and soon enough they got the ability to survive for a few moments there and even more. With this the animal kingdom started conquering the world.
Our limits
You may not like it but our past is in the oceans and our bodies are related to that environment.
We have removed ourselves further and further away from the ocean and our survival depends today only of availability of fresh water, food and oxygen fresh air. If the blood flow to our brain stops for more than six seconds we will loose our consciousness, the maximum time we can be remain without breathing varies usually between one to two minutes while some professional skin divers can hold their breaths even several minutes, we can survive without drinking one to two weeks and without eating almost a month. The oxygen content in the air is typically around 21% but in big cities and on busy stop and go highways during peak hours the oxygen level can reportedly go dangerously low closer to 10%. Note that if the air oxygen content is below 7% we can not survive.
The body of an average adult man contains about 60% of water while the the body of an average woman contains 50% water. At birth the body of a child consists of about 75% water. Two to five percent loss of water impairs already our ability to work while we need to lose about 20% before it turns lethal, however for young children the loss of water may become lethal already at 12% - 16% level.
We gain water by eating and drinking and we should consider keeping our direct water intake at around two liters per day regardless what we eat as we get water in also just by eating.
least drinkling can loose . 2% duringThe is abwithouth we must get air to our lungs at least , it starts dying and more on fresh water, plants and fellow land dwellers for a drink and a quick meal.
Separating ourselves from the salt water and it's low oxygen content to utilize oxygen from the atmosphere allowed our bodies to develop to ever more powerful and efficient machines. The increasing power though required that we kept on refilling our bodies with fresh water that evaporated or got other way discarded. We were now the supreme rulers of the lands. Our problem was that we had a huge need of energy as on land we had no support from the water. The pull of gravity had to be won and we needed strong muscles and a good skeleton to accomplish this.
At the beginning we used enormous amounts of plants to acquire the raw material for the chemicals that we needed to run our muscles. We combined these chemicals with the oxygen from the air and fresh water from rivers and ponds and we were ready to roam - short distances.
To increase the roaming area and the probability to survive the power that we generated had to be used more efficiently or new ways. The oxygen rich atmosphere great options and we tested them all during the coming millions of years - we actually still do this testing. We tested all shapes and forms even flying and soon enough we started evolving to different directions and different size units. We also learned that instead of eating just plants we could boost our development by eating fellow land dwellers and we soon discovered that some tasted better than the others and did not fight back too much while being prepared for the dinner table.
The human body, as it is today, is a highly specialized and sophisticated chemical factory that is still extracting all the needed energy through chemical reactions. It has evolved so that it can process a wide variety of raw materials from plants to a variety of animal species. We have also developed to highly efficient killing machines with long range tools to subdue any animal we can spot if we so desire. About great majority of us like plant based foods while a large portion prefers more meats mixed with the plants. The meats seem to produce plenty of energy while the plants seem to provide more variety - and we have realized that we must keep on eating a great variety of foods to have a long life.
Our body is full of tiny power plants - biological fuel cells - these maintain all the physical and chemical processes around our bodies active - some even live days after the body is already clinically dead. Like any complicated machinery it needs to be kept intact and all the lubricants and fluids that transport the nutrition to each of the cell a timely manner.
Them elemental (atomic) composition in our body resembles the one in ocean water with a some exceptions as one would expect. We are no more living in oceans and must drink fresh water to survive. It is also interesting to note that soaking hours in ocean water leaves our skin practically intact while doing the same at home in a bath tub makes the skin especially in in our fingers wrinkled.
For engineers the similarity of atomic composition between our body and ocean water is striking. There are several exceptions with large concentration of some specific elements and some say immediately no way there is a connection. However, these exceptions are also striking for engineers as all the high concentration elements in our bodies have found their way to industry where they all are used as catalysts in a multitude of chemical processes. A catalyst is an element that increases the speed of a desired chemical reaction tremendously by participating to the process directly or just by being present. When it is participating the catalyst must be replaced from time to time to maximize the process speed.
It is easy grasp that for life some of the elements and minerals might be more important than the others. Just look at the development of agriculture or even farming. The early agriculture in the North used to be based on burning a parcel of forest down to the ground and then planting the crop. The land was highly productive for the first few years but lost the ability to support any agriculture. Our ancestors learned that the crops removed the minerals from the land and after the most critical minerals were gone the land would not produce anything without replenishing them or letting it recover by itself. They learned also to re-supply all nutrients to the land and even rotate the crops and the problem was solved. Before that this was a huge problem for thousands of years. Making arable land was a labor intensive process. Like the land our bodies lose minerals with digestive waste, sweat and other liquids and we must keep on adding them back to survive.
The chemical balance is much less understood even among the medical community and that comes as a surprise for those who understand the power of a simple chemical balance indicator we call pH with a scale from 1 to 14. The human body survives only in a very narrow range around the pH of distilled water indicated as a number 7. A pH 8 means that the alkalinity of a liquid is ten times higher that the alkalinity of water - this is an overpowering force driving all reactions in the chemical universe. The human body keeps itself automatically healthy when the pH is slightly above the pH 7 and when staying long below 7 we start slowly dissolving it. There is surprisingly little knowledge out from this issue and only a few ears ago doctors just threw a blank stare when you asked about the importance of the pH. However, anybody who knows anything about chemistry should know that the pH balance drives all chemical processes and sometimes even a slight difference in pH can drive the whole process to totally different and unexpected direction. This is the reason to the increasing numbers in deaths blamed afterwards on unexpected interactions between the perfectly functioning medicines whenever they are used separately. When taken together they suddenly formed a deadly new chemical inside the human chemical "factory".
On the mechanical side of our body our heart together with the piping and tubing that we call veins form together the most important physical and extremely complex device. This system circulates our blood to every corner in our body bringing the oxygen, all the nutrients and minerals where needed, and in return trip carrying away the waste to the cleaning and filtering devices like the liver and kidneys that separate the unwanted materials from the blood and at the end from the body. At the end they also take the blood through a atomic/molecular reactor and heat exchanger, we call lungs, where the smallest bi-atomic waste element from our body - not removable at any physical way - the carbon monoxide is reacts with one atom of the bi-atomic oxygen molecule in the air creating free carbon dioxide gas while the other oxygen molecule reacts with the iron containing blood cells in our blood inside our lungs. When we exhale the carbon dioxide is removed from our body and unfortunately we at the same time lose also some water molecules that evaporate to the usually fairly dry air inside our lungs. This loss of evaporating water forms at the same time a fairly efficient evaporative heat exchanger that carries away excess body heat with loss of minimal amount of water that we must replenish by drinking to survive. Our normal most important unwanted chemicals/water removal happens through our kidneys while our digestive system with all the associated chemical "factories" handle almost 100 percent of all materials and liquids brought to our body through the mouth. Our largest organ is our skin and we use it often as an evaporative heat exchanger and whenever we are overheating as indicated by sweating the skin takes over some kidney functions removing now excessively forming water and chemicals from our body.
This whole machinery gets "born" in an instant from a fertilized egg and from that moment on our cells have but one goal in mind. They must reach the magic 75 trillion stable cell count as soon as possible. This means within 12 to15 years. Still the physical strength of a human body peaks at around the age of 25 to 27. The rest is just maintenance and more or less constant decay - with 4,000,000 repair actions per second. We can slow this decaying process but not stop it.
The average cell in a human body will be replaced once in every 200 days. If we live to be 100 years old the average cell has been replaced about 180 times. This 200 days forms one rule of thumb, a magic number as it takes at least that long to repair something that was badly damaged in our body.
But that is not the full story. We all are under constant attack by the high energy particles arriving from space. Usually they will pass through us as if we never existed but sometimes they collide with atoms in our DNA molecules and perhaps even change this specific atom to something else. Our body has it's defenses in RNA molecules that are running around and fixing these damaged DNA's whenever they find one but this is a hopelessly slow process and we "age".
Some of our historical anecdotes or otherwise preserved stories reaching 4,000-6,000 years back in time indicate that some people may actually have lived a little longer at those times. However, as some stories are related to the birth of major religious movements they may contain more fiction than facts to support the divinity of the "important" individuals. Anyhow, at those times they did not have too much pollution to fight against and even the climate was fairly comfortable. The real problem was the famine and also the wars kept on popping up. Everybody in power wants always a little more and than their fair share and to get this they subdue those who are weaker at that very moment. We keep on repeating this same error as it has not dawned to our leaders that the physical power over the others requires also mental power and these two power sources can never be harnessed to serve only one Nation or one group of people.
Regardless going beyond some 10,000 years back in history the life of our ancestors was short ending usually less than a decade after our body had reached it's peak in physical strength. Our daily life was full of all kind of hazards as the hunting and killing tools were not that good and consequently the animal kingdom was a mighty force that had a change to win whenever it's mightiest members found our ancestors in only slightly weakened conditions or just unprepared. At that time just a broken bone or a large open wound could mean the end of an individual.
Our body is 71% of water while the rest consists of a myriad of various lego-pieces or cells that form our skin, nervous system with all of it's sensors, muscles, bones, veins, lymphoid and digestive systems and all our other organs.
Like all freely moving life swimming in the oceans, crawling or walking on the land or flying in the air, the origin of our life is in the oceans. Most every living creatures have a pump (heart) and veins (pipes) that carry and distribute oxygenized blood everywhere in the body and return the oxygen depleted blood to re-oxygenation inside our lungs or gills. This liquid we call blood performs an equal task for all creatures but is still different enough that different species can not utilize the blood of the other species. Among the humans we have even four different blood types with minor differentiation even inside these types. Emergency blood transfusion is practical only between the people with similar blood type. There is one exception as one of these blood types is specific and whoever carries that can donate blood to everybody else without any adverse reactions in the recipient's body.
However there is another equally dominating function in our bodies that that guards our bodily functions against abnormalities. Almost invariably all physical damages weaken our defenses and will allow conditions and attacks by a multitude of microbe class invaders that are bombarding our bodies constantly trying to find any weaknesses to make our body to their new home to grow. Without the service provided by our lymphoid system we would not last a day in our present world. Most of the defense activities get initiated almost instantly when a foreign life form or object enters our body and that is most of the time the end of the story. However sometimes the body has difficulties to recognize the invader as it tries to be camouflaged as something that is useful to our body and if it takes a long time before the deception is discovered we found ourselves to be sick. At this time the defenses are waking up and mobilizing to full force but they may need added help as the invaders are multiplying at high speed at their now already solidly protected bases.
This is a real war but our body usually wins it, if we just give it a change by resting and giving it the usual home remedies that are used in the family for similar cases. If these are not helping then the earlier we get stronger medicines the quicker the invaders are defeated. Unfortunately, the antibiotics that are today the usual fast treatment are the nuclear bomb in this warfare and consequently anything that is not part of our body gets killed. This means that thousands of microbes that we need to live will get killed in the process. Fortunately we get them back from the food we eat but all takes time. There is a general loss in our immunity as our body is always at work to develop immunity against invaders it meets. This means that we actually carry weakened microbes that will be instantly mobilized to kill if a specific even serious disease tries to invade us again. All these immunity producing microbes get also nuked and they must be rediscovered, meaning that we may even need to get sick again to let our body to redevelop the lost immunity.
We can help these processes by first cleaning whatever is an open wound and then preventing the blood from escaping the wound. Our own saliva is a perfect first aid antibiotic (just look how all the wounded animals lick their wounds). The saliva also helps clogging the blood from the smaller wounds even without bandages. However, with any larger problems is best to let a professional to check that all is well. An inflammation on a wound is a sign that something is not working. Our body is suddenly involved into a mortal combat on the damaged area and the winner of this battle has not been declared. If the body loses this battle ground our whole body can be next and suddenly even the small problems can turn serious and demand even additional help.
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